Japanese Culture Essay Example for Free

Japanese Culture Essay Abstract It is important to understand that an individuals perspective of death and dying is greatly impacted by their culture. In this paper I will discuss how the Japanese culture approaches death and dying. I will also discuss the unique concept of organ transplantation that surrounds that Japanese culture. This paper presents the law of organ transplantation in Japan, which allows people to decide whether brain death can be used to determine their death in agreement with their family. Japan could become a unique example of individual choice in the definition of death if the law is revised to allow individuals choose definition of death independently of their family. The death and dying rituals involved in the Japanese culture will be discussed. Overview of the Japanese Culture In the latter half of the twentieth century, developed countries of the world have made remarkable strides in organ donation and transplantation. However, in this area of medicine, Japan has been slow to follow. Japanese ethics, deeply rooted in religion and tradition, have affected their outlook on life and death. The Japanese have only recently started to acknowledge the concept of brain death and transplantation of major organs has been hindered in that country. Currently, there is a dual definition of death in Japan, intended to satisfy both sides of the issue. This interesting paradox, which still stands to be fully resolved, illustrates the controversial conflict between medical ethics and medical progress in Japan. The Japanese culture considers a human being both alive and dead, an integrated body, mind, and spirit (Dennis, 2009, p.12). Therefore removing an organ from a brain-dead person involves a disturbance in this natural integrated unit. In the Japanese culture organ donation and organ transplantation are unpopular and rare (Dennis, 2009). According to Dennis (2009), the Japanese culture believes that a dead body must remain whole because if they are not whole, that dead person will be unhappy in the next world. Japanese Culture on Death and Dying It is crucial to understand that an individuals perspective of death and dying is greatly impacted by their culture. Japan is the only country, which permits individual choice in death definition for the purpose of organ transplantation, and in agreement with the persons family. The Japanese organ transplantation law of 1997 is a long debate on brain death and organ transplantation. Over almost three decades, medical, legal and public discussion has occurred; a lack of consensus on the definition of human death caused a long delay in adopting a law on organ procurement (Akabayashi, 1997). Finally, policy makers in Japan have adopted a law with unique features, such as giving an opportunity to individuals to choose the definition of death based on their own views. Therefore, in Japan individuals may choose either cessation of cardio†respiratory function or loss of entire brain function for their death pronouncement (Morioka, 2001). However, the choice is permitted in Japanese law only if organs can potentially be used for transplant with the agreement of the family, which means that although individuals can choose the definition of death based on their own views, the law gives power to the family to confirm or reject the choice. The law allows the family to override the individual choice in death definition (Akabayashi, 1997). The first effort to pass a law on organ transplantation following brain death failed in 1994. The main reason why the proposed law was rejected in 1994 is said to be because it stated that brain death is equal to death, and also because it approved surrogate decision making by the family. These issues raised serious arguments and concerns among some members, resulting in defeat of the legislation (Akabayashi, 1997). However, the situation has changed since then and, as public polls show, the number of people who accept the concept of brain death has increased from 29% to 60%. (Lock, 1996) . The current law states that for organ removal, the donors prior declaration and family agreement are both necessary requirements (Japan Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare, 1997). The organ donation provisions of the law apply for brain dead donors as well as any cadaver. The law authorizes organ removal from a brain†dead person only if the donor has, during his life expressed in writing his consent to the diagnosis of brain death, as well as, his intention to donate his organ(s). Therefore, the law authorizes individuals to choose between the traditional definition or the alternative standard based on brain function by signing an â€Å"Organ Donation Decision Card†. Individuals can state their wishes at the back of this card by marking one of the following items: (1) I wish to be a donor based on the brain†oriented definition; (2) I want to be a donor after cardiac death; or (3) I refuse to donate organs (Bagheri, 2003). The law is not free of criticism, especially in terms of adopting a double standard regarding the role of the family. On the one hand, it gives the family the power to veto an individuals willingness to donate. On the other hand, it does not authorize the family to be a surrogate decision maker based on the interests of their beloved ones when they are in a brain†dead state and the organ donor card cannot be found. Nevertheless, the unbalanced role and power of veto of the family under the present law can be seen as a hindrance to organ procurement in Japan (Bagheri, 2003). The process of dying is regarded not as an individual event but as a family event in the Japanese culture (Kimura, 1998). There is no doubt that any transplant†related legislation should be concerned with inclusion of the opinion of the family in the decision†making process. This forms a basis for social acceptance of the legislation. However, in any culture a practical question arises: to what extent is the familys opinion to be taken into consideration? According to the law, family consent is required both for organ procurement and for declaration of death according to brain†based criteria. Therefore an individual can choose the definition of death with the agreement of her or his family, but not independently (Kimura, 1998). Japan is the only country that allows individuals to choose either the traditional definition or the brain†oriented definition of death, but individual choice must be confirmed by the family; therefore, it is a family based choice (Kimura, 1998). Death and Dying Rituals in the Japanese Culture A Japanese funeral includes a wake, the cremation of the deceased, a burial in a family grave, and a periodic memorial service. According to statistics, 99.82% of all deceased Japanese are cremated. While the ashes of many are buried in family graves, the scattering of ashes has become more common in recent years, including a burial at sea (Wakabayashi Sekiguchi, 2011). Many funeral services are carried out in the form of Buddhist ceremonies. After a person has died, their lips are moistened with water, in a ceremony referred to as Matsugo-no-mizu Water of the last moment (Wakabayashi, Sekiguchi, 2011). The household shrine is closed and covered with a white paper, to keep out impure spirits. This process is known as Kamidana-fuji. A small table placed beside the deceaseds bed is also decorated with flowers, incense, and a candle. A knife may placed on the chest of the deceased to drive away evil spirit (Wakabayashi Sekiguchi, 2011). Funeral arrangements are made and the body is washed and the orifices are blocked with cotton or gauze. The funeral clothing will consist of either a suit for a male or a kimono if the deceased is a female. Makeup may also be applied in order to improve the appearance of the body. The body is then put on dry ice and placed inside the casket with the head positioned towards the north or west, along with a white kimono, sandals and six coins for the crossing of the River of three hells. Items which the deceased was fond of will also be placed inside the casket as well, so long as they are flammable. The casket is then placed on the altar in preparation of the wake (Nakata, 2009). Guests who attend the funeral are expected to dress in black attire. The men usually wear black suits with a white shirt and a black tie, while women wear either a black dress or a black kimono. A Buddhist prayer bead called juzu may also be carried by guests. Guests are expected to bring condolence money in a special black and silver decorated envelope. At the funeral, the guests will be seated, with the next of kin closest to the front. The Buddhist priest will read a sutra. The family members will each in turn offer incense three times to the incense urn in front of the deceased. The closest relatives may stay and keep vigil with the deceased overnight in the same room (Nakata, 2009). Japanese funerals are usually performed on the day following the wake. The funeral service is similar to that of the wake service, the difference being that during the funeral service, the deceased will receive a new Buddhist name to prevent the return of the deceased if their name is called. At the end of the ceremony, flowers may be placed inside the casket before it is sealed and carried to an elaborately decorated hearse where it is transported to the crematorium. In some regions of Japan, the casket may be nailed shut by mourners using a stone (Wakabayashi Sekiguchi, 2011). Once the casket has arrived at the crematorium, the family witnesses the sliding of the body into the cremation chamber, then leave. After the cremation process is complete, the family returns to pick the bones out of the ashes and transfer them to an urn using chopsticks. In some instances, two family members will hold the same bone at the same time with their chopsticks or pass the bones from chopsticks to chopsticks. According to Japanese custom, this is the only time when it is proper for two people to hold the same item at the same time with chopsticks. The bones are picked up and transferred to the urn in a manner which ensures that the deceased is not placed upside down in the urn. Therefore the bones of the feet are picked up first, the bones of the head last (Nakata, 2009). A typical Japanese grave is usually a family grave consisting of a stone monument with a place for flowers, incense, and water in front of the monument and a chamber underneath for the ashes. The date of the formation of the grave and the name of the person who purchased it may be engraved on the side of the monument. The names of the deceased may or may not be engraved on the front or left side of the monument or on a separate stone in front of the grave Nakata, 2009). The Japanese honor the dead with shrines in their homes and tending to the gravesite (Dennis, 2009). During three days in August, the Japanese Buddhist celebrate at The Bons Festival in honor of the departed spirits of ones’ ancestors (Dennis, 2009). Until the early twentieth century most bodies were buried and cremation was limited to the wealthy. Cremation became more common after World War II due to its efficiency and cleanliness. In 2009, 99.9% of Japanese bodies were cremated, and some local governments ban burials (Wakabayashi Sekiguchi, 2011). Conclusion I learned a lot about the Japanese culture while researching my paper. One of the things that I found surprising was that the majority of Japanese bodies are cremated. The similarities that I found between the American and the Japanese culture are that both cultures were black to funerals. In both cultures items that are valuable are placed in the caskets and funerals are followed by the wake. While cremation is popular in Japan, I was surprised to learn that cremation is on the rise in the United States; however, not everyone approves of it (Dennis, 2009). References Akabayashi A (1997). Japans parliament passes brain death law. The Lancet, 349 (9069). Retrieved from http://www.lancet.com. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)63895-0. Bagheri A. (2003). A criticism of brain death policy in Japan. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 13 (4), 359-372. Dennis, D. (2009) Living, Dying, Grieving. Sandbury, MA: Jones and Barlett Publislhers. Japan Ministry of Health Labor and Welfare, The law concerning human organ transplants The law no. 104 1997. Translation 1999. Kimura R. (1998). Death, dying and advance directives in Japan: socio†cultural and legal points of view. In: Sass HM, Veatch RM, Rihito K, eds. Advance directives and surrogate decision making in health care. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Lock M. (1996). Deadly dispute: ideologies and brain death in Japan. In: Stuart J, Youngner Laurence J, OConnell Renee C, eds. Organ transplantation meaning and realities. Fox. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Morioka M. (2001). Reconsidering brain death: a lesson from Japans fifteen years experience. Hastings Center Report 31, (4), 41-46. Nakata, H. (2009). The Japan Times. Japan’s funerals deep-rotted mix of ritual, form. Retrieved from http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20090728i1.html. Wakabayashi, D., Sekiguchi, T. (2011). After Flood, Deaths Overpower Ritual. Wall Street Journal.

The Character of Claudius in Shakespeares Hamlet Essays -- GCSE Englis

The Character of Claudius in Hamlet      Ã‚      Shakespeare presents Claudius as a character with many faces yet the audience can clearly understand his motives and ambition throughout the play. His character does however change and we clearly see how his evilness and weakness increases as his need to escape discovery and his clandestine nature in doing so, is revealed.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      It is in Act one scene two that we are first introduced to the character of Claudius. The impression made by him is that of a powerful and controlled man who is respected by most. His mannerisms of speech are graceful and are nothing less than the words of a king, 'to bear our heats with grief, and our whole kingdom.' Claudius is presented to us by Shakespeare as a dominant but caring king. He acts in a friendly manner to his subjects "Take thy fair hour, Laertes; thine be thine" and shows warmth to his nephew, " but now my cousin Hamlet, and my son-." To the naked eye of the audience, Claudius may even be seen as a likeable character, but we later understand Shakespeare's use of Claudius's attitude towards his family at this stage, which is unknown to us to be a whole deceitful act. Here we perceive that not only does Claudius have a great knowledge of affairs of state, "now follows that you know young Fortinbras, Holding a weak supposal of our worth." but he is also a g reat actor.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We know as the viewer of this play, that it was Claudius that committed the murder of his brother Hamlet, and that in selfish reason Claudius took to the throne along as marrying Gertrude, the past kings wife. Like the audience of the Elizabethan times, Hamlet is also mystified at this "O hasty marriage." In his superficial speec... ...Faucit, Helena (Lady Martin). On Some of Shakespeare's Characters. 6th ed. London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1899.    Knight, G. Wilson. "The Embassy of Death." The Wheel of Fire. London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1954. p. 38-39. http://server1.hypermart.net/hamlet/wheefire.html N. pag.    Mack, Maynard. "The World of Hamlet." Yale Review. vol. 41 (1952) p. 502-23. Rpt. in Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996.    Madariaga, Salvador de. "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern." "On Hamlet." 2nd ed. London: Frank Cass & Co., Ltd., 1964. p.14-16. http://www.freehomepages.com/hamlet/other/essayson.htm#demag-ess N. pag.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html No line nos.   

Effects Of Media On Globalization Essay

Media and globalization go hand in hand. Although researchers in both fields may have divergent views on the extent of influence of each on the other, it is evident that the two have a correlation and will always be in tandem. Terhi Rantanen acknowledges that media and globalization are closely interlinked. Whereas most communication scholars focus the role of media in the process of globalization they are opposed to media being relegated to a socio-cultural study. They think media affects all arenas globalization including politics and economics. On the other hand, experts of globalization are in agreement that globalization would be impossible without media and communications As the name suggests, globalization is to make something local go worldwide; to have a reach beyond the borders of one’s locality. Media does extend people beyond their national borders and globalization does affect media. The focus of this paper will be on the effects of globalization on media. It will determine how globalization has changed media in Britain through the: – Modifications in language of media. – Innovation and increased use of new media – Increased and profound focus   on global issues – A closer relationship and shared culture by people from different continents – Increased income and transnational corporations Media in Britain has had to adapt different languages to attract a new international audience. Globalization from a business perspective means leaving one’s country and selling one’s goods and services to another country. Therefore, it follows that one has to adjust to the national language of the people so as to trade. Media is a commercial venture like any other and making profit is the end goal. The audience reach, response and retention have to be massive to realize any benefits, monetary or otherwise. Evidently, the globe is the largest untapped market for British media. To maximise on this new frontier, one has to know and effectively apply the correct vocabulary, intonations and other aspects of language to capture and retain their attention of the prospective audience in a foreign country. The world has 6,912 living languages. It would be impossible to broadcast in all languages but a media institution that broadcasts or prints its information in the major and popular languages of the world has an advantage over a rival entity that only does so in English. Take an example of BBC World Service, the leading international broadcaster that broadcasts in 33 languages including Urdu, Swahili, Chinese, French, Shona, Spanish etc. Why does it do so? It diffuses its message in all these other languages because of globalization. BBC no longer appertains to the British. It is now an intercontinental brand name. Consequently, to boost the audience numbers, the national broadcaster has to present programs which non English speakers can also understand. BBC’s purpose for existence is ‘to enrich people lives with programmes and services that inform, educate and entertain,’ Indeed, if BBC had not started broadcasting 75 years ago in other languages, today it would not be the leading international broadcaster that it claims to be nor would have such universal brand recognition. Globalization has provoked the creation of new production for new media. As the labour costs and other production costs in the West including Britain rise to unprecedented heights, manufacturers of new media apparatus such as computer chips and other components are relocating their business to cheaper assemblage destinations. According to Lievrouw et al. new media is not only the content but also the infrastructure that supports production, distribution and exhibition of this content. They emphasize that institution of satellite broadcasting and telecommunication networks which sustain the seamless content supply, actively supports the globalization of new media. Also these networks encourage the international growth of local, regional and global markets. ‘Communication and new media systems have supported the expansion of business beyond national markets to a system whereby components are developed, manufactured, assembled, and sold far from where corporations (Transnational) exercise control. In short, globalization has encouraged advancement of communications technologies thus improving the quality and quantity of intercontinental information and commerce which has encouraged further globalization. This endless cycle has led to opening of factories in developing countries which benefit from the new income. The British Media has increased the coverage and space of international issues. They are running more in depth programs and writing feature articles on events taking part in other parts of the world. For instance, at the beginning of this year violence broke out in a tiny East Africa country called Kenya that was once a former colony of Britain. During this period Sky Broadcasting Corporation, British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC), the Daily Mail and The Guardian gave us blow by blow accounts of the breaking news. Why did they give so much time to such a story from a far off state? Well, Kenya was of great strategic to Britain. Britons have business interests and some have family members residing there. The world was really compressed because this chaos taking place in Kenya was part of their reality as well. Globalization has affected how Britons and the media understand the world. As the media advances and increases in complexity it is not enough to just listen, watch or read the news. Britons want more than just excerpts. The news, especially international news, are analysed; experts are summoned; explanations and predictions are made. Reuters diffuses political, economic and social news in over 23 languages through its wire services. This information comes complete with historical backgrounds and expert opinion. Globalization has in fact led to Vilanilam writes ‘Reuters main business is not simply transmitting news of daily political events it also supplies the media with news of financial transactions worldwide. . . . In short, the world’s financial transactions and their impact on the immediate and long term interests of its allies are of primary concern to Reuters. ’ Therefore because British media also has an interest in the global information, it has to reinvent itself and broaden its perspective so that it can keep with an audience that has increased consciousness of world around them. Bryn et al describe globalization as a schoolboy who listens in India who eats American cereal, listens to a Canadian pop singer is a schoolboy on a Japanese manufactured MP3 player, wears American Jeans , converses to his parents in Hindi, and goes for English language classes. This phenomenon has indeed has linked between people of different land masses together and in this same way it has helped to propel brand names from western countries to developing countries in the southern and eastern part of the hemisphere. How has it affected media in Britain? The media has played a part in this process and has benefited through transmission of adverts to foreign countries. British Media has extended its programming and publications to the other side of the globe. The Indian boy would get know all this brand names and the MP3 because he saw it in Sky International or BBC Click program. The media in Britain is enhancing the homogeneity of people with different racial, ethnic and political affiliations already began by the process of globalization. Hence, globalization and media have a symbiotic relationship The globalization trend has led to the rise of so called new media in Britain. Bill Jones says that, ‘By 2005, nearly 36 million people or nearly 60% of UK homes, have a PC . . . . ‘ . Globalization has forced Britons to modernize the way they access information. They no longer rely on the old media such as television and radio or newspapers. Nowadays Britons are spending more time at watching news, reading newspapers on the Internet. This is because globalization means that business, politics; society in general has gone global. To keep on top of what the trends, one has to have the fastest media available. The Web contains more information than any source of media. It can be portable and one does not have to be in a fixed place to access the precious information necessary for survival. Apart from the PCs Britons have Ipods to download music from their favourite international artists, MP3 players to watch their favourite UEFA club match. Globalization has brought economic growth to the media industry in terms of the massive annual incomes derived by companies who endeavour to globalize. O’Loughlin et al explain how there are now new entities called ‘transnational’ media corporations which extend beyond Britain. He gives an example of NewsCorp owned by Rupert Murdoch who has multi-million dollar interests in Asia and Britain. These corporations create job opportunities for media practitioners in Britain. This new media market is almost a trillion dollar industry in Britain and it will continue to grow. In conclusion, globalization has changed the media for the better and with time the face of media in Britain will have a different appearance because of influence from globalization. Consequently, globalization and media in Britain are ultimately and inextricable interconnected and symbiotic.

Operations Management And Its Significance - 2910 Words

Operations Management in Business Task I Operations Management and Its Significance Operations management is the concept commonly considered and used in today’s competitive business organisations (Slack Chambers, 2010). It includes complex management activities that are involved in organisations’ planning, controlling and other management functions. A few years back, organisations did not realise its significance in the business operations, but now, perception has been changed. Today, companies are more sensible and sensitive towards adopting effective operational management strategies. For instance, businesses are more dependent on the mailing services. Companies’ success is utterly dependent on effective communication. The more†¦show more content†¦The second reason is that, organisations can fulfil or best meet their customers’ needs and demand. Operations management concept can be comprehended as a transformation process. In this process, the input transmutes into output. Operations management is significant as it helps the organisations to ameliorate productivity. It helps in measuring employees or managers’ efficiency. The more managers or employees utilises efficiently scarce resources, the more effectively operations of the organisations can be managed (Krajewski Ritzman, 2010). Ernst and Young is the best example for this; the managers of this company improve their operations by minimising the input cost and boosting output. Operations Function of Furniture Supplier Company There are three-core operations functions of the furniture supplier company. These functions are as follows: The furniture supplier company improves the marketing functions by clearly and concisely communicate organisation’s final product. This company is also involved in the furniture development function. In this, company produces and creates new as well as modified finished products in order to increase and retain customers. The operations function is solely responsible for meeting customer demand for a product via production and delivery of the final product. Furniture Supplier Company performs the same function, which other manufacturing companies perform in order to improve their business operations and to transform or transmute